Ancient Uses of Urine—From Cleaning to Medicine
For much of human history, urine was more than just waste—it was a valuable resource. Ancient civilizations, from the Romans to the Chinese, found practical uses for urine in cleaning, medicine, and even industry. The chemical properties of urine, particularly its ammonia content, made it a powerful agent for various tasks long before people understood the science behind it.
In ancient Rome, urine was so useful that it was collected in special jars placed on street corners. It played a crucial role in laundering clothes, as the ammonia helped break down grease and stains. Roman fullers—workers in the textile industry—trampled garments in vats of urine to clean them, a process known as saltus fullonicus or the “fullers’ jump” (Britannica). Urine also served as a mordant in dyeing fabrics, helping colors adhere to textiles more effectively. Similarly, tanners used urine to soften animal hides and remove hair before processing leather.
Beyond cleaning, urine had surprising medicinal applications. Ancient physicians in Rome and China believed it had healing properties, using it to treat wounds, skin conditions, and even as a mouthwash to whiten teeth. The ammonia in urine acted as a mild disinfectant, though modern science has largely debunked its effectiveness for such purposes. Some cultures even practiced urine therapy, consuming small amounts for supposed health benefits.
Industrial uses of urine extended into gunpowder production. During the Middle Ages, urine was a key ingredient in extracting saltpeter (potassium nitrate), a crucial component of gunpowder. Soldiers and alchemists alike relied on urine-soaked straw and manure piles to produce the explosive substance. It was also essential in creating indigo dye, as its ammonia content helped convert the plant-based indigotin into a soluble form for fabric dyeing.
The widespread use of urine in ancient industries highlights early human ingenuity. Long before chemistry emerged as a formal science, people instinctively recognized the usefulness of certain substances in their environment. This deep-rooted knowledge would later play a critical role in the accidental discovery of phosphorus in 1669—a breakthrough that helped lay the foundation for modern chemistry.
Alchemists and the Search for the Philosopher’s Stone
Alchemy has long been associated with the pursuit of the Philosopher’s Stone, a mythical substance believed to have the power to transform base metals into gold and grant immortality. For centuries, alchemists across Europe and the Middle East dedicated their lives to uncovering this legendary material, blending mystical traditions with rudimentary chemical experimentation. Their work not only shaped early scientific inquiry but also laid the foundation for modern chemistry.
Among these alchemists was Hennig Brand, a 17th-century German scientist who believed that human urine might hold the key to creating gold. Urine, with its golden hue and distinct chemical properties, was thought to contain essential elements for transmutation. This idea, though misguided, was rooted in alchemical thinking, which often drew connections between visual similarities and material properties. Brand’s experiments would ultimately lead to an entirely different discovery—phosphorus, the first element to be isolated in modern history.
Another significant figure in this transition from alchemy to chemistry was Robert Boyle, often considered one of the fathers of modern chemistry. Boyle refined Brand’s phosphorus extraction methods and, more importantly, championed experimental transparency and scientific documentation. His seminal work, The Sceptical Chymist, challenged the secrecy of alchemy and promoted a systematic, empirical approach to chemical study. This shift marked the beginning of chemistry as a formal science, moving away from mystical interpretations and towards structured experimentation.
Although the Philosopher’s Stone was never found, the alchemical pursuit of it spurred advancements in laboratory techniques, chemical apparatus, and the understanding of material transformations. The quest for transmutation may have been a failure, but it inadvertently led to the discovery of new elements and the development of scientific methodologies that continue to shape chemistry today.
The Discovery of Phosphorus from Boiled Urine in 1669
In the late 17th century, the world of alchemy was still deeply intertwined with mysticism, and few pursuits were as coveted as the search for the Philosopher’s Stone—the legendary substance said to grant immortality and turn base metals into gold. One of the alchemists chasing this dream was Hennig Brand, a merchant-turned-experimentalist from Hamburg, Germany. In 1669, Brand embarked on a peculiar, labor-intensive experiment, convinced that human urine held the key to transmutation. What he found instead was something far more illuminating—literally.
Brand’s method was as unorthodox as it was extensive. He collected roughly 5,500 liters of urine—a staggering amount, requiring contributions from multiple sources—and let it stand until it began to ferment. He then boiled it down to a thick, syrupy residue before heating it at extremely high temperatures in a sealed vessel. The result? A mysterious, waxy, white substance that glowed faintly in the dark and burst into flames upon exposure to air. He called it “icy noctiluca”, or cold night light, but today we know it as phosphorus, from the Greek word phosphoros, meaning “light-bearer”.
This was a groundbreaking moment in science. For centuries, the known elements had been limited to classical substances like earth, water, air, and fire. Brand’s discovery marked the first time in recorded history that a new element had been identified through experimentation—a pivotal step towards modern chemistry (Britannica). But at the time, Brand believed he was still on the brink of discovering gold. He kept his findings secret for six years, before eventually selling the knowledge of phosphorus production to other chemists, including Johann Kunckel and Daniel Kraft (Gizmodo).
The implications of Brand’s discovery would extend far beyond alchemy. Phosphorus quickly became a subject of fascination for scientists, leading to practical applications such as early match production and fertilizers. More importantly, it demonstrated that new elements could be extracted from everyday substances, challenging the mystical traditions of alchemy and laying the foundation for modern chemical research. This accidental breakthrough, born from an alchemist’s misguided quest for gold, ultimately illuminated the path toward a new scientific era.
How Hennig Brand Accidentally Unlocked a New Element
In the 17th century, alchemy was still a respected pursuit, blending mysticism with early scientific inquiry. Hennig Brand, a former soldier turned alchemist, was among those who believed in the legendary Philosopher’s Stone, a substance thought to transform base metals into gold. Unlike many of his contemporaries, however, Brand sought this mythical material in an unlikely source: human urine. His conviction stemmed from the observation that urine contained a golden hue, which he took as a promising sign.
Brand’s experiments were ambitious, to say the least. Funded by his wealthy wife Margaretha, he collected over 5,500 liters of urine, allowing it to ferment before boiling it down into a thick, syrupy residue. He then subjected this residue to intense heat, mixing it with sand and charcoal. After hours of heating, a strange vapor emerged, condensing into a glowing, waxy substance. Rather than gold, Brand had inadvertently discovered phosphorus, an element never before identified. He named it “icy noctiluca” due to its eerie luminescence in the dark.
Initially, Brand kept his discovery secret, hoping to profit from it. However, after six years, he sold the knowledge to other chemists, including Robert Boyle, who refined the extraction process. Boyle’s work with phosphorus eventually led to the development of matches and other practical applications. Brand’s accidental breakthrough marked a turning point in chemistry, shifting the field away from alchemical superstition and toward empirical scientific discovery.
Urine as a Key Ingredient in Early Chemical Experiments
Urine might seem like an unlikely catalyst for scientific discovery, but in the early days of chemistry, it was a prized resource. Before the periodic table and modern analytical techniques, early chemists and alchemists turned to natural substances, and urine—abundant, easily collected, and chemically rich—became a crucial ingredient in their experiments. It contained ammonia, urea, and phosphates, all of which were valuable in various chemical processes.
One of the most famous examples of urine’s role in chemistry was Hennig Brand’s 1669 discovery of phosphorus. By boiling down 5,500 liters of urine, Brand isolated a glowing, highly combustible substance that would later revolutionize industries such as match production and fertilizers. But Brand wasn’t the only one experimenting with urine. In the 18th century, Dutch textile workers used it for cleaning and dyeing fabrics, while medical researchers attempted to extract useful compounds from it. Johannes Schlosser, a medical student, even devised a method to crystallize “essential salts” from urine, an early step toward understanding chemical precipitation.
Urine’s chemical versatility also extended to pathology. Jerome Gaub, an 18th-century scientist, studied how bladder stones formed by analyzing urine’s crystallization processes. Meanwhile, Hermann Boerhaave, a pioneering chemist, isolated urea and determined urine’s specific gravity, laying the groundwork for modern biochemical analysis. These early experiments demonstrated that valuable chemical compounds could be extracted from everyday substances, bridging the gap between alchemy and modern chemistry.
The Role of Curiosity and Trial-and-Error in Early Science
Science, particularly in its earliest forms, was not born out of structured methodologies or peer-reviewed journals. It was driven by an insatiable curiosity—an almost reckless determination to uncover the secrets of nature, often through relentless trial and error. Hennig Brand’s 1669 experiment with urine is a perfect example of this. As an alchemist, he was chasing the philosopher’s stone, a mythical substance believed to turn base metals into gold. Instead, through a laborious and somewhat bizarre process of boiling down 5,500 liters of urine, he stumbled upon phosphorus—a discovery that would later prove essential to chemistry, agriculture, and even modern medicine.
Brand’s approach, though unscientific by today’s standards, reflected a broader pattern in early scientific exploration. Trial and error was the primary tool for discovery, as structured methodologies had yet to be formalized. Robert Boyle, one of the pioneers of modern chemistry, refined Brand’s findings through more systematic experimentation, documenting his methods in The Skeptical Chemist—a foundational text that emphasized open scientific inquiry. This shift from mystical speculation to empirical investigation marked a crucial turning point. Without Brand’s curiosity and Boyle’s refinement, chemistry might have taken a far slower path toward becoming the rigorous science it is today.
How This Strange Discovery Helped Launch Modern Chemistry
Hennig Brand’s discovery of phosphorus in 1669 marked a turning point in the transition from alchemy to modern chemistry. For centuries, alchemists had pursued the mythical Philosopher’s Stone, believing it could transform base metals into gold. Brand, a German alchemist, was no exception—he collected over 5,500 liters of urine, convinced that its golden color hinted at a connection to the elusive metal. Instead of gold, however, his experiments led him to an entirely new element: phosphorus, a glowing, highly reactive substance that burned upon exposure to air. This was the first time in history that an element had been isolated through a controlled chemical process, signaling a shift from mystical speculation to empirical discovery.
Brand’s secret did not remain his alone. Within years, other scientists, including Robert Boyle, refined phosphorus production and explored its properties. Boyle, often credited as one of the fathers of modern chemistry, documented his findings in The Skeptical Chemist, advocating for systematic experimentation and the open exchange of scientific knowledge. This shift away from secrecy was crucial—alchemy had long been an esoteric practice, but Boyle’s approach encouraged collaboration, laying the foundation for the scientific method. The discovery of phosphorus also had immediate practical applications, most notably in the development of the first matches, which revolutionized fire-making by making it more portable and accessible.
Beyond its immediate uses, phosphorus played a significant role in shaping modern chemistry. The realization that elements could be hidden within everyday substances spurred further investigations into matter’s composition, ultimately leading to the periodic table’s development. As British physicist Jim Al-Khalili observed, this discovery demonstrated that chemistry was not about mystical transformations but about understanding and manipulating the fundamental building blocks of nature. In the centuries that followed, phosphorus became essential in agriculture (as a key component of fertilizers), medicine, and industry, influencing everything from DNA research to the production of plastics. What began as a misguided quest for gold inadvertently laid the groundwork for modern chemistry, proving that scientific progress often emerges from the most unexpected places.
